Biology Chemical And Atp Study Guide
Virtually all forms of life use ATP, a nearly universal molecule of energy transfer. The energy released during catabolic reactions is stored in ATP molecules. In addition, the energy trapped in anabolic reactions (such as photosynthesis) is trapped in ATP molecules.
An ATP molecule consists of three parts. One part is a double ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms called adenine. Attached to the adenine molecule is a small five-carbon carbohydrate called ribose. Attached to the ribose molecule are three phosphate units linked together by covalent bonds. The covalent bonds that unite the phosphate units in ATP are high-energy bonds. When an ATP molecule is broken down by an enzyme, the third (terminal) phosphate unit is released as a phosphate group, which is an ion. When this happens, approximately 7.3 kilocalories of energy are released.
(A kilocalorie equals 1,000 calories.) This energy is made available to do the work of the cell. The adenosine triphosphatase enzyme accomplishes the breakdown of an ATP molecule.
The products of ATP breakdown are adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and a phosphate ion. Adenosine diphosphate and the phosphate ion can be reconstituted to form ATP, much like a battery can be recharged. To accomplish this, synthesis energy must be available. This energy can be made available in the cell through two extremely important processes: photosynthesis (see Chapter 5) and cellular respiration (see Chapter 6).
SECTION CHEMICAL ENERGY AND ATP 4.1 Study Guide KEY CONCEPT VOCABULARY chemosynthesis All cells need chemical energy. ATP ADP MAIN IDEA: The chemical energy used for most cell processes is carried by ATP.
What do all cells use for energy? What is the relationship between ATP and ADP? CHAPTER 4 Cells and Energy Fill in the four parts of the cycle diagram below to take notes on the relationship between ATP and ADP. Copyright © McDougal Littell/Houghton Mifflin Company. Unit 2 Resource Book Study Guide 31 McDougal Littell Biology STUDY GUIDE, CONTINUED MAIN IDEA: Organisms break down carbon-based molecules to produce ATP. Use the table below to organize your notes about the different types of molecules that are broken down to make ATP.
Type of Molecule Role in ATP Production Carbohydrates 4. CHAPTER 4Proteins 6.
Cells and Energy Copyright © McDougal Littell/Houghton Mifflin Company. MAIN IDEA: A few types of organisms do not need sunlight and photosynthesis as a source of energy. What is chemosynthesis? Vocabulary Check 8.
The prefix tri- means “three,” and the prefix di- means “two.” How do these prefixes tell you the difference between adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP)? The prefix chemo- means “chemical,” and synthesis comes from a Greek word that means “to put together.” How do these meanings tell you what chemosynthesis does?
32 Study Guide Unit 2 Resource Book McDougal Littell Biology SECTION CHEMICAL ENERGY AND ATP 4.1 Power Notes 1. Adenosine triphosphate Phosphate Phosphate added. Energy CHAPTER 4 4. Cells and Energy Adenosine 2. Diphosphate Molecule Type Energy Details 5.
Carbohydrate 6. Lipid Copyright © McDougal Littell/Houghton Mifflin Company.
Protein Chemosynthesis is: Unit 2 Resource Book Power Notes 33 McDougal Littell Biology SECTION CHEMICAL ENERGY AND ATP 4.1 Reinforcement KEY CONCEPT All cells need chemical energy. All cells need chemical energy for their functions. The energy that your cells need comes indirectly from the food you eat. The chemical energy used by all cells is carried by a molecule called adenosine triphosphate, or ATP. ATP is a molecule that transfers energy from the breakdown of molecules in food to cell processes.
A molecule of ATP has three phosphate groups. The energy carried by ATP is released when the third phosphate group is removed from the molecule by a chemical reaction. When the phosphate group is removed and energy is released, ATP is converted into a molecule called adenosine diphosphate, or ADP. ADP is a lower-energy molecule that can be changed back into ATP by the addition of another phosphate group. Different types of carbon-based molecules (carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins) can be broken down to produce ATP. The breakdown of the different molecules produces different amounts of ATP.
Carbohydrates, especially the simple sugar glucose, are most commonly broken down to make ATP. The breakdown of a lipid produces many more ATP molecules than does the breakdown of a sugar. Proteins are the molecules least likely to be broken down, but they store about the same amount of energy as carbohydrates. Many organisms must eat other organisms to get the carbon-based molecules they need to make ATP. Some organisms, such as plants, use a process called photosynthesis to make their own food molecules. Other organisms that survive without light can make their own food molecules through a process called chemosynthesis. CHAPTER 4 Cells and Energy1.
What is the function of ATP? Copyright © McDougal Littell/Houghton Mifflin Company.2.
Which types of carbon-based molecules can be broken down to make ATP? 34 Reinforcement Unit 2 Resource Book McDougal Littell Biology SECTION OVERVIEW OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS 4.2 Study Guide KEY CONCEPT VOCABULARY light-dependent reactions photosynthesis light-independent reactions The overall process of photosynthesis chlorophyll produces sugars that store chemical thylakoid energy. MAIN IDEA: Photosynthetic organisms are producers.
Why are some organisms called producers? What is the function of photosynthesis?
CHAPTER 4 Cells and Energy 3. What is chlorophyll? Copyright © McDougal Littell/Houghton Mifflin Company. MAIN IDEA: Photosynthesis in plants occurs in chloroplasts. What are chloroplasts? In which two parts of a chloroplast does photosynthesis take place?
What are thylakoids? Write the chemical equation for the overall process of photosynthesis. Then explain what the equation means and identify the reactants, products, and the meaning of the several arrows. What are the differences between the light-dependent reactions and the light-independent reactions?
Unit 2 Resource Book Study Guide 35 McDougal Littell Biology STUDY GUIDE, CONTINUED Use the space below to sketch and label a chloroplast. On the sketch, write the four steps of the photosynthesis process. Photosynthesis CHAPTER 4 Cells and Energy Copyright © McDougal Littell/Houghton Mifflin Company. Vocabulary Check 9. The prefix photo- means “light,” and synthesis means “to put together.” How do those meanings tell you what happens during photosynthesis? The prefix chloro- means “green,” and the suffix -phyll means “leaf.” How are these meanings related to chlorophyll?
The prefix in- means “not.” How does this meaning tell you which reactions in photosynthesis require light, and which reactions do not? 36 Study Guide Unit 2 Resource Book McDougal Littell Biology SECTION OVERVIEW OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS 4.2 Power Notes Photosynthesis: 1. CHAPTER 4 Contains: Cells and Energy 3. Copyright © McDougal Littell/Houghton Mifflin Company. Write the equation for photosynthesis: Unit 2 Resource Book Power Notes 37 McDougal Littell Biology SECTION OVERVIEW OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS 4.2 Reinforcement KEY CONCEPT The overall process of photosynthesis produces sugars that store chemical energy. Some organisms, called producers, make their own carbon-based molecules, such as carbohydrates, that are broken down to make ATP. The process that many producers, including plants, use to make their own source of food is called photosynthesis.
Biology Chemical And Atp Study Guide Section 4.1
Photosynthesis is a process that captures energy from sunlight to make sugars that store chemical energy. In plants, photosynthesis takes place in organelles called chloroplasts. Chloroplasts contain molecules, such as chlorophyll, that absorb energy from light. Most of a plant’s chloroplasts are in leaf cells specialized for photosynthesis. Chloroplasts have two main parts used for photosynthesis: the grana, which contain disk-shaped structures called thylakoids, and the stroma, which is the fluid that surrounds the grana. Photosynthesis takes place in two main stages. The first stage is called the light-dependent reactions.
In the light-dependent reactions chlorophyll absorbs energy from sunlight and water molecules are broken down. Energy is transferred to molecules such as ATP. Oxygen is released as a waste product. The second stage is called the light-independent reactions.
In the light-independent reactions energy from the light-dependent reactions is used to build sugar molecules from carbon dioxide. The overall, simplified chemical equation for the photosynthesis process is: 6CO2 + 6H2O →→→→→→→ C6H12O6 + 6O2 CHAPTER 4 Cells and Energy1. What is photosynthesis? Copyright © McDougal Littell/Houghton Mifflin Company.
Where does photosynthesis take place in plants? What happens during the light-dependent reactions? What happens during the light-independent reactions? What are the reactants and the products of photosynthesis? 38 Reinforcement Unit 2 Resource Book McDougal Littell Biology SECTION PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN DETAIL 4.3 Study Guide KEY CONCEPT VOCABULARY ATP synthase photosystem Calvin cycle Photosynthesis requires a series of electron transport chain chemical reactions.
MAIN IDEA: The first stage of photosynthesis captures and transfers energy. Overall, what is the function of the light-dependent reactions? What are photosystems? Which molecules carry energy to the light-independent reactions? CHAPTER 4 Cells and Energy Fill in the sequence diagram below to follow the seven steps of the light-dependent reactions. Copyright © McDougal Littell/Houghton Mifflin Company.
Unit 2 Resource Book Study Guide 39 McDougal Littell Biology STUDY GUIDE, CONTINUED MAIN IDEA: The second stage of photosynthesis uses energy from the first stage to make sugars. What is the function of the Calvin cycle? Fill in the cycle diagram to summarize the four steps of the Calvin cycle.
Cells and Energy Copyright © McDougal Littell/Houghton Mifflin Company. Vocabulary Check 5. What is the electron transport chain?
The first part of an enzyme’s name tells you about its function. All enzymes end with the suffix -ase. What does this information tell you about ATP synthase? What does the word cycle tell you about the chemical reactions of the Calvin cycle? 40 Study Guide Unit 2 Resource Book McDougal Littell Biology SECTION PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN DETAIL 4.3 Power Notes Light-Dependent Reactions CHAPTER 4 Step Description Cells and Energy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Light-Independent Reactions 2.
Copyright © McDougal Littell/Houghton Mifflin Company. Unit 2 Resource Book Power Notes 41 McDougal Littell Biology SECTION PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN DETAIL 4.3 Reinforcement KEY CONCEPT Photosynthesis requires a series of chemical reactions. Photosynthesis takes place in two main stages: the light-dependent reactions and the light-independent reactions.
The light-dependent reactions capture and transfer energy. The light-dependent reactions mainly take place in the thylakoid membranes through two groups of molecules, called photosystems.
Photosystem II: In photosystem II, chlorophyll and other light-absorbing molecules capture energy from sunlight. The energy is transferred to electrons that travel through a series of proteins in the thylakoid membrane called an electron transport chain. Water molecules are broken down. Hydrogen ions from the water molecules are pumped across the thylakoid membrane. Photosystem I: Additional energy is absorbed from sunlight and transferred to electrons in the electron transport chain. The electrons are used to produce a molecule called NADPH, which carries energy to the light-independent reactions.
ATP synthase: Hydrogen ions flow through a complex enzyme called ATP synthase that produces ATP molecules that are transferred to the light-independent reactions. The light-independent reactions use the ATP and NADPH from the light-dependent reactions, and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, to make sugars. The light-independent reactions take place through the Calvin cycle. The Calvin cycle has several chemical reactions that are necessary to produce a high-energy sugar from low-energy carbon dioxide. CHAPTER 4 Cells and Energy Copyright © McDougal Littell/Houghton Mifflin Company.
What are the three parts of the light-dependent reactions? What are the functions of photosystem II? What are the functions of photosystem I?
What is the function of ATP synthase? What happens during the Calvin cycle? 42 Reinforcement Unit 2 Resource Book McDougal Littell Biology SECTION OVERVIEW OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION 4.4 Study Guide KEY CONCEPT VOCABULARY anaerobic cellular respiration Krebs cycle The overall process of cellular aerobic respiration converts sugar into ATP glycolysis using oxygen. MAIN IDEA: Cellular respiration makes ATP by breaking down sugars. What is cellular respiration? Cells and Energy 2. Why is cellular respiration called an aerobic process?
Where does cellular respiration take place? What happens during glycolysis?
MAIN IDEA: Cellular respiration is like a mirror image of photosynthesis. In what two ways does cellular respiration seem to be the opposite of photosynthesis?
Copyright © McDougal Littell/Houghton Mifflin Company. In which two parts of a mitochondrion does cellular respiration take place? Write the chemical equation for the overall process of cellular respiration. Explain what the equation means.
Identify the reactants, products, and the meaning of the several arrows. Unit 2 Resource Book Study Guide 43 McDougal Littell Biology STUDY GUIDE, CONTINUED Use the space below to sketch and label a mitochondrion. On the sketch, write the four steps of the cellular respiration process that occur in the mitochondrion. Cellular Respiration CHAPTER 4 Cells and Energy Copyright © McDougal Littell/Houghton Mifflin Company. Vocabulary Check 9. The prefix glyco- comes from a Greek word that means “sweet.” The suffix -lysis comes from a Greek word that means “to loosen.” How are the meanings of these word parts related to the meaning of glycolysis? What does it mean to say that glycolysis is an anaerobic process?
What is the Krebs cycle? 44 Study Guide Unit 2 Resource Book McDougal Littell Biology SECTION OVERVIEW OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION 4.4 Power Notes Cellular respiration: Glycolysis: 1. Takes place in 2. Cells and Energy 5. Copyright © McDougal Littell/Houghton Mifflin Company. Write the equation for cellular respiration.
Unit 2 Resource Book Power Notes 45 McDougal Littell Biology SECTION OVERVIEW OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION 4.4 Reinforcement KEY CONCEPT The overall process of cellular respiration converts sugar into ATP using oxygen. Cellular respiration is a process in all eukaryotes that breaks down sugars and other carbon-based molecules to make ATP when oxygen is present. Because cellular respiration needs oxygen, it is an aerobic process. In eukaryotic cells, the aerobic parts of the process take place in mitochondria. The step that leads to cellular respiration takes place in the cytoplasm and is anaerobic, which means it does not need oxygen. The anaerobic process that leads to cellular respiration is called glycolysis. In glycolysis, two ATP molecules are used to split a molecule of glucose into two three-carbon molecules, which produces four ATP molecules.
Glycolysis yields a net increase of two ATP molecules. Then, if oxygen is available, the products of glycolysis are used in cellular respiration.
Cellular respiration takes place in two general stages, in two different parts of the mitochondria. The Krebs cycle is a series of chemical reactions that further breaks down the three-carbon molecules from glycolysis. The Krebs cycle takes place in the matrix, or interior space, of mitochondria.
These chemical reactions produce carbon dioxide, a small number of ATP molecules, and energy-carrying molecules that are used in the second stage of cellular respiration. An electron transport chain uses the energy-carrying molecules from the Krebs cycle to produce a large number of ATP molecules. Water, which is released as a waste product, is also formed. The electron transport chain is in the inner mitochondrial membrane. The overall, simplified chemical equation for the cellular respiration process is C6H12O6 + 6O2 →→→→→→→ 6CO2 + 6H2O CHAPTER 4 Cells and Energy1. What is cellular respiration? Copyright © McDougal Littell/Houghton Mifflin Company.
What is glycolysis, and why is it an anaerobic process? What happens in the Krebs cycle? What is the function of the electron transport chain? Unit 2 Resource Book McDougal Littell Biology 46 Reinforcement SECTION CELLULAR RESPIRATION IN DETAIL 4.5 Study Guide KEY CONCEPT Cellular respiration is an aerobic process with two main stages. MAIN IDEA: Glycolysis is needed for cellular respiration.
What is the function of glycolysis? What happens to the molecules formed during glycolysis when oxygen is available? What is meant by a “net gain of two ATP molecules” from glycolysis? CHAPTER 4 Cells and Energy MAIN IDEA: The Krebs cycle is the first main part of cellular respiration. What is the function of the Krebs cycle? Copyright © McDougal Littell/Houghton Mifflin Company. Complete the cycle diagram below to summarize the six steps of the Krebs cycle.
Pyruvate broken down Unit 2 Resource Book Study Guide 47 McDougal Littell Biology STUDY GUIDE, CONTINUED MAIN IDEA: The electron transport chain is the second main part of cellular respiration. Where is the electron transport chain in cellular respiration located? What is the function of the electron transport chain? Fill in the sequence below to take notes on the four steps of the electron transport chain. Why is oxygen needed for cellular respiration?
CHAPTER 4 Cells and Energy Copyright © McDougal Littell/Houghton Mifflin Company. 48 Study Guide Unit 2 Resource Book McDougal Littell Biology SECTION CELLULAR RESPIRATION IN DETAIL 4.5 Power Notes Glycolysis: when oxygen is available 4. Cells and Energy 1. Identify the process: 7. Copyright © McDougal Littell/Houghton Mifflin Company.
Electron Transport Chain 2. Oxygen’s role in cellular respiration: Power Notes 49 Unit 2 Resource Book McDougal Littell Biology SECTION CELLULAR RESPIRATION IN DETAIL 4.5 Reinforcement KEY CONCEPT Cellular respiration is an aerobic process with two main stages. Cellular respiration takes place in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells. Before cellular respiration can occur, glucose is broken down in a cell’s cytoplasm during an anaerobic process called glycolysis. During glycolysis, two ATP molecules are used to split a glucose molecule into two three-carbon molecules that eventually become molecules called pyruvate. Four molecules of ATP (a net increase of two ATP), and two molecules of an energy-carrying molecule called NADH are formed.
When oxygen is available, the pyruvate and NADH are used for cellular respiration in the mitochondria. The first part of cellular respiration, including the Krebs cycle, takes place in the mitochondrial matrix. The second part takes place within and across the inner mitochondrial membrane. Pyruvate is broken down and is linked to a molecule called Coenzyme A.
This molecule enters the Krebs cycle. In the Krebs cycle, carbon-based molecules are broken down and rearranged to produce NADH and FADH2, which are energy-carrying molecules, two molecules of ATP, and carbon dioxide waste.
Energized electrons are removed from NADH and FADH2 by proteins in the electron transport chain. Hydrogen ions are pumped across the inner membrane, then flow through ATP synthase to produce ATP. Oxygen picks up the electrons that travel along the chain. Water is released as a waste product. CHAPTER 4 Cells and Energy1. What happens during glycolysis? Copyright © McDougal Littell/Houghton Mifflin Company.
Describe the first stage of cellular respiration in mitochondria. What is the function of the electron transport chain in cellular respiration? What does oxygen do in cellular respiration? What are the overall reactants and products in cellular respiration?
50 Reinforcement Unit 2 Resource Book McDougal Littell Biology SECTION FERMENTATION 4.6 Study Guide KEY CONCEPT VOCABULARY fermentation Fermentation allows the production of a small amount of lactic acid ATP without oxygen. MAIN IDEA: Fermentation allows glycolysis to continue. What is the importance of fermentation?
Biology Study Guide
What is the function of fermentation? When does fermentation take place in your muscle cells? CHAPTER 4 Cells and Energy 4. Why is fermentation an anaerobic process?
How is fermentation involved in the production of ATP? Copyright © McDougal Littell/Houghton Mifflin Company. In the space below, show and label the process of lactic acid fermentation. Lactic Acid Fermentation Unit 2 Resource Book Study Guide 51 McDougal Littell Biology STUDY GUIDE, CONTINUED MAIN IDEA: Fermentation and its products are important in several ways. In the space below, show and label the process of alcoholic fermentation. Alcoholic Fermentation CHAPTER 4 Cells and Energy Copyright © McDougal Littell/Houghton Mifflin Company. How are lactic acid fermentation and alcoholic fermentation similar?
Name one commercial use of lactic acid fermentation. Name one commercial use of alcoholic fermentation. Vocabulary Check 9. The term fermentation is based on a word that means “to bubble.” How is this meaning related to your understanding of the fermentation process? What is lactic acid?
52 Study Guide Unit 2 Resource Book McDougal Littell Biology SECTION FERMENTATION 4.6 Power Notes Glycolysis Cellular respiration O2 no Fermentation: O2 Lactic Acid Fermentation CHAPTER 4 Process: Cells and Energy Alcoholic Fermentation Process: Copyright © McDougal Littell/Houghton Mifflin Company. Uses of Fermentation 1. Power Notes 53 3. Unit 2 Resource Book McDougal Littell Biology SECTION FERMENTATION 4.6 Reinforcement KEY CONCEPT Fermentation allows the production of a small amount of ATP without oxygen. When oxygen is not available in cells, fermentation takes place instead. Fermentation is an anaerobic process that allows glycolysis to continue, but does not produce ATP on its own. The main function of fermentation is to remove electrons from molecules of NADH, the energy-carrier produced by glycolysis, to form NAD+.
The molecules of NAD+ are recycled to glycolysis, which can continue to produce a small amount of ATP without oxygen. There are two main types of fermentation. Lactic acid fermentation: Pyruvate and NADH from glycolysis enter the fermentation process. Energy from the NADH molecules is used to convert pyruvate into lactic acid. NADH molecules are converted into NAD+ molecules that are recycled to glycolysis to pick up more electrons.
This type of fermentation occurs in many types of cells, including human muscle cells. Alcoholic fermentation: Like lactic acid fermentation, pyruvate and NADH from glycolysis enter fermentation. Energy from NADH is used to break down pyruvate into an alcohol and carbon dioxide.
NADH molecules are converted into NAD+ molecules that are recycled to glycolysis. Alcoholic fermentation is used by many types of yeast. Both types of fermentation are used in various commercial processes. Lactic acid fermentation is used to make yogurt.
Alcoholic fermentation is used to make dough rise. CHAPTER 4 Cells and Energy1. What is the function of fermentation? Copyright © McDougal Littell/Houghton Mifflin Company. How are lactic acid fermentation and alcoholic fermentation similar? How is fermentation used in commercial processes? Unit 2 Resource Book McDougal Littell Biology 54 Reinforcement CHAPTER INTERPRETING GRAPHS 4 Data Analysis Practice Scientists use data tables to organize their experimental data.
Often, the data are graphedAmount of chlorophyll (µg/g)CHAPTER 4 because a graph can make the data easier to interpret. Graphs quickly show a relationship Cells and Energy between two variables. Copyright © McDougal Littell/Houghton Mifflin Company. Scientists exposed two groups of seedlings to various amounts of light. One group was exposed to low light conditions (LL) and the other group was exposed to moderate light (ML) conditions. Scientists measured the amount of chlorophyll in the seedlings at regular intervals during a 48-hour period.
The amount of chlorophyll in the seedlings is expressed in micrograms of chlorophyll per gram of seedling (µg/g). The data from both groups are shown in the graph below. AMOUNT OF CHLOROPHYLL WITH DIFFERENT AMOUNTS OF LIGHT 600 Low light Moderate light 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 3 5 8 12 24 48 Hours 1. Analyze Approximately how much chlorophyll was present in the low-light plants after 24 hours? In the moderate-light plants after 24 hours? Conclude What are the similarities and differences between the low-light seedlings and the moderate-light seedlings?
Unit 2 Resource Book Data Analysis Practice 55 McDougal Littell Biology 3. Infer To which of the two lighting conditions would you expose seedlings if you wanted to maximize the rate of photosynthesis in the plants? CHAPTER 4 Cells and Energy Copyright © McDougal Littell/Houghton Mifflin Company. 56 Data Analysis Practice Unit 2 Resource Book McDougal Littell Biology CHAPTER LEAF STRUCTURE: BUILT FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS 4 Pre-AP Activity You know that structure and function are related in biology.
In Chapter 4 you have learned CHAPTER 4 how the structure of chloroplasts enables a plant to capture the Sun’s energy, then convert Cells and Energy and store it as chemical energy, in a process called photosynthesis. This demonstrates the structure-function relationship at a cellular level. The structure–function relationship doesn’t stop there.
The cells in which photosynthesis is carried out are further specialized into different tissues that are structured in such a way as to ensure that. the raw materials needed for photosynthesis—sunlight, water vapor, carbon dioxide—are supplied to the chloroplasts. the energy-rich product—sugar—is delivered to the rest of the plant. the unused byproduct—oxygen—is removed Collectively these cells and tissues form an organ—the leaf—that is well suited to photosynthesis. CELLS AND TISSUES The diagram below shows the cross section of a leaf. Individual cells are shown in outline; the tiny dark ovals are chloroplasts. Use the descriptions of plant cells and tissues that follow to identify the components.
Include labels for the epidermis, guard cells, stoma, palisade mesophyll, spongy mesophyll, and vascular bundle. Copyright © McDougal Littell/Houghton Mifflin Company. Epidermal Tissue The cells of the epidermis cover every surface of a leaf exposed to air. The cells mostly lack chloroplasts and so are colorless.
The cell walls of epidermal tissue contain cutin, an insoluble lipid polymer that feels waxy to the touch. Typically found in the lower surface of the epidermis are specialized pairs of guard cells, which do contain chloroplasts. Together the guard cells form a structure called a stoma (plural, stomata) that opens and closes in response to the availability of water. Mesophyll Tissue The cells that make up this tissue contain large numbers of chloroplasts. Palisade mesophyll is made up of elongated rectangular cells that pack tightly together. Spongy mesophyll is made up of cells that are irregular in shape and so less compact. Unit 2 Resource Book Pre-AP Activity 57 McDougal Littell Biology Vascular Tissue The cells that make up a vascular bundle are tubelike cells that stack end to end.
Cells of the xylem move water and dissolved nutrients from the roots into the upper parts of a plant. Cells of the phloem carry sugars away from the leaves into lower parts of a plant.
Having read the descriptions and labeled the diagram, answer the following questions on a separate piece of paper. For questions 4 and 5, you might first want to examine a tree to note the general shape, size, thickness, and orientation of its leaves. Write a word equation to identify the reactants and products of photosynthesis.
Identify three important functions of the epidermis that support the photosynthetic process. Describe in what way the cells of the epidermis are suited to these functions. Together the mesophyll tissues form the ground tissue of a leaf, where most photosynthetic activity occurs. Considering the shape and position of the cells of the tissues, describe how the two tissues work together to ensure that a leaf produces nutrients sufficient to keep a plant alive. The vascular bundles form the veins of a leaf. From your own observations, what seems to be the optimal position of vascular bundles?
From your own observations, what seems to be the optimal position of leaves on a tree? What mechanism has produced the adaptations necessary for photosynthesis seen in a leaf? CHAPTER 4 Cells and Energy Copyright © McDougal Littell/Houghton Mifflin Company. 58 Pre-AP Activity Unit 2 Resource Book McDougal Littell Biology CHAPTER ORDER VERSUS DISORDER IN LIVING MATTER 4 Pre-AP Activity In Chapter 1, you learned that one of the characteristics of life is that it needs a constant CHAPTER 4 supply of energy to maintain itself. As you have learned in Chapter 4, photosynthesis is the Cells and Energy primary means by which energy is brought into the biosphere and cellular respiration is one Copyright © McDougal Littell/Houghton Mifflin Company. Of just a few ways in which it can be released.
ENERGY In physics, energy is typically defined as “the capacity to do work.” It comes in different forms. Mechanical and electrical energy, as well as heat and light, are forms of kinetic energy—energy associated with the motion of an object. Potential energy is energy associated with an object’s position. Gravity represents a source of potential energy, as does the energy stored in chemical bonds. As an object does work, energy is often changed from one form to another.
In biology, an organism does work when it interacts with the environment, but a large amount of work is also done to keep an organism growing and its living matter organized. When an organism “works,” its cells transform energy. THERMODYNAMICS Thermodynamics is the study of energy transformations. Any collection of matter that is being studied is referred to as a system, whether that system is the universe or an organism. There are two types of systems, open and closed. In a closed system, matter and energy are not exchanged with the surroundings; in an open system, matter and energy are exchanged with the surroundings. Two laws of thermodynamics govern energy transformations.
The first law of thermodynamics, also known as the law of conservation of energy, states that energy can be transferred or transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed. The second law of thermodynamics states that not all of the energy that is transferred or transformed can be used for work; some of it is wasted. Wasted energy increases the overall disorder in the universe (the system and its surroundings). Organisms typically release a lot of wasted energy in the form of heat. Heat is generated when molecules move and collide in a disorganized manner, and it is this form of energy that is released following chemical reactions. Entropy is a quantity that measures the amount of disorder.
According to the second law, every time energy is transferred or transformed in a spontaneous process, the amount of entropy (disorder) in the universe increases. The universe is a closed system that encompasses all matter and energy. How is it that energy can be considered wasted in a system that encompasses all energy? How would you describe the measure of entropy in an organism? Unit 2 Resource Book Pre-AP Activity 59 McDougal Littell Biology 3.
How is it possible for energy transformations to increase the order in living things if, according to the second law of thermodynamics, energy transformations make the universe more disordered? If you could view the history of Earth as you might a video set to fast forward, you would see a planet that was barren and devoid of life change to one where organisms of every sort occupy just about every square inch of its surface. How is it that there is always more energy available to support a steady increase in highly organized living matter despite the fact that so much energy is used as well as wasted by life cycles? Producers, such as plants, capture energy from the Sun and store it in energy-rich compounds that animals use as a source of energy. Animals that feed on plants directly are primary consumers, animals that feed on primary consumers are secondary consumers, and so it goes as the energy captured by plants or other producers moves up a food chain.
These feeding relationships are often depicted in an energy pyramid, with producers at the base. How does the structure and shape of an energy pyramid support the idea that energy is being lost through living matter? Heat is a form of kinetic energy that increases the motion of particles and therefore increases the opportunity for chemical reactions to occur. Your body maintains a stable internal environment by keeping its internal temperature at about 98.6 °F. Yet your cells do not use heat to do work but radiate the heat out of your body, into your surroundings. Instead your body uses molecules such as ATP and enzymes to do the body’s work. Why doesn’t the body use the heat available to it as a source of energy?
CHAPTER 4 Cells and Energy Copyright © McDougal Littell/Houghton Mifflin Company. 60 Pre-AP Activity Unit 2 Resource Book McDougal Littell Biology CHAPTER CELLS AND ENERGY 4 Vocabulary Practice ATP light-independent reactions glycolysis ADP photosystem anaerobic chemosynthesis electron transport chain Krebs cycle photosynthesis ATP synthase fermentation chlorophyll Calvin cycle lactic acid thylakoid cellular respiration light-dependent reactions aerobic A. Matching Write the vocabulary term or phrase next to its definition. CHAPTER 4 Cells and Energy Calvin cycle electron transport chain photosystem chlorophyll light-dependent reaction thylakoid Copyright © McDougal Littell/Houghton Mifflin Company. Coin-shaped compartment that contains light-absorbing molecules 2. A series of chemical reactions that produces sugars from carbon dioxide 3.
A series of proteins in the thylakoid membrane that transfers high-energy electrons 4. Two groups of molecules in the thylakoid membrane that capture and transfer energy 5. Reaction that captures energy from sunlight and transfers energy to the light-independent reactions 6.
Light-absorbing molecule in thylakoid membrane Unit 2 Resource Book Vocabulary Practice 61 McDougal Littell Biology VOCABULARY PRACTICE, CONTINUED B. Stepped-Out Vocabulary Define each word. Then write two additional facts that are related to the word. WORD DEFINITION MORE INFORMATION Example ATP three phosphate groups molecule that transfers energy from breakdown of food forms cycle with ADP molecules to cell processes 1. Glycolysis CHAPTER 4 Cells and Energy3. ADP Copyright © McDougal Littell/Houghton Mifflin Company.4.
Fermentation 5. Cellular respiration 6. Krebs cycle 8. Lactic acid 62 Vocabulary Practice Unit 2 Resource Book McDougal Littell Biology VOCABULARY PRACTICE, CONTINUED C.
Word Origins Circle the Greek and Latin word parts in each vocabulary term. Then use the Greek and Latin meanings to construct a very basic definition of the vocabulary word. Tri- = three photo- = light an- = without di- = two syn- = together -ic = relating to chemo- = chemical aero- = air -ase = enzyme WORD DEFINITION 1.
Anaerobic CHAPTER 4 3. Photosystem Cells and Energy 4.
Chemosynthesis 5. Photosynthesis 6. ATP synthase D.
Analogy Vocabulary Set The vocabulary terms below are related to energy and the transfer of energy. On one blank line next to each vocabulary term, write the letter and number of the definition that best matches. On the other blank line, write the letter and number of the analogy that best matches.
Copyright © McDougal Littell/Houghton Mifflin Company. DEFINITIONS WORD ANALOGIES 1. An empty gas tank D1. The process that splits glucose into 2 three-carbon molecules 2.
Electron transport chain A2. Chopping a log in half to get and makes 2 ATP firewood to burn D2. A low-energy molecule D3. A complex enzyme that makes 3. Glycolysis A3. A full gas tank ATP D4. A high-energy molecule 4.
A turbine that produces that transfers energy to cell 5. ATP synthase electricity from the flow of processes water D5. Series of proteins that A5. A pipe that carries water to a transfers high-energy turbine to produce electricity electrons Unit 2 Resource Book Vocabulary Practice 63 McDougal Littell Biology VOCABULARY PRACTICE, CONTINUED E. Do-It Yourself Matching In a random order, write short definitions for each term on the blank lines to the right. Then give your paper to a classmate who should write the number of the term next to the correct definition. 1.thylakoid 2.fermentation 3.light-independent reactions 4.anaerobic 5.lactic acid 6.chemosynthesis CHAPTER 4 Cells and Energy Copyright © McDougal Littell/Houghton Mifflin Company.
Vector Vocabulary Define the words in the boxes. On the line across each arrow, write a phrase that describes how the words in the boxes are related to each other. GLYCOLYSIS 1. CELLULAR RESPIRATION FERMENTATION 3.
KREBS CYCLE LACTIC ACID 5. ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN 7.
64 Vocabulary Practice Unit 2 Resource Book McDougal Littell Biology.